Council of trent
The nineteenth ecumenical council opened at Trent on
13 December, 1545, and closed there on 4 December, 1563. Its main object
was the definitive determination of the doctrines of the Church in
answer to the heresies of the
Protestants; a
further object was the execution of a thorough reform of the inner life
of the Church by removing the numerous abuses that had developed in it.
I. CONVOCATION AND OPENING
On 28 November, 1518,
Luther had
appealed from the pope to a general council because he was convinced
that he would be condemned at Rome for his heretical doctrines. The Diet
held at Nuremberg in 1523 demanded a "free
Christian
council" on German soil, and at the Diet held in the same city in 1524 a
demand was made for a German national council to regulate temporarily
the questions in dispute, and for a general council to settle definitely
the accusations against Rome, and the religious disputes. Owing to the
feeling prevalent in Germany the demand was very dangerous. Rome
positively rejected the German national council, but did not absolutely
object to holding a general council. Emperor Charles V forbade the
national council, but notified Clement VII through his ambassadors that
he considered the calling of a general council expedient and proposed
the city of Trent as the place of assembly. In the years directly
succeeding this, the unfortunate dispute between emperor and pope
prevented any further negotiations concerning a council. Nothing was
done until 1529 when the papal ambassador, Pico della Mirandola,
declared at the Diet of Speyer that the pope was ready to aid the
Germans in the struggle against the Turks, to urge the restoration of
peace among
Christian rulers, and to convoke a general council to meet the
following summer. Charles and Clement VII met at Bologna in 1530, and
the pope agreed to call a council, if necessary. The cardinal legate,
Lorenzo Campeggio, opposed a council, convinced that the
Protestants
were not honest in demanding it. Still the Catholic princes of Germany,
especially the dukes of Bavaria, favoured a council as the best means of
overcoming the evils from which the Church was suffering; Charles never
wavered in his determination to have the council held as soon as there
was a period of general peace in
Christendom.
The matter was also discussed at the Diet of Augsburg
in 1530, when Campegio again opposed a council, while the emperor
declared himself in favour of one provided the
Protestants
were willing to restore earlier conditions until the decision of the
council. Charles's proposition met the approval of the Catholic princes,
who, however, wished the assembly to meet in Germany. The emperor's
letters to his ambassadors at Rome on the subject led to the discussion
of the matter twice in the congregation of cardinals appointed
especially for German affairs. Although opinions differed, the pope
wrote to the emperor that Charles could promise the convoking of a
council with his consent, provided the
Protestants
returned to the obedience of the Church. He proposed an Italian city,
preferably Rome, as the place of assembly. The emperor, however,
distrusted the pope, believing that Clement did not really desire a
council. Meantime, the
Protestant
princes did not agree to abandon their doctrines. Clement constantly
raised difficulties in regard to a council, although Charles, in accord
with most of the cardinals, especially Farnese, del Monte, and Canisio,
repeatedly urged upon him the calling of one as the sole means of
composing the religious disputes. Meanwhile the
Protestant
princes refused to withdraw from the position they had taken up. Francis
I, of France, sought to frustrate the convoking of the council by making
impossible conditions. It was mainly his fault that the council was not
held during the reign of Clement VII, for on 28 Nov., 1531, it had been
unanimously agreed in a consistory that a council should be called. At
Bologna in 1532, the emperor and the pope discussed the question of a
council again and decided that it should meet as soon as the approval of
all Christian
princes had been obtained for the plan. Suitable Briefs addressed to the
rulers were drawn up and legates were commissioned to go to Germany,
France, and England. The answer of the French king was unsatisfactory.
Both he and Henry
VIII of England avoided a definitive reply, and the German
Protestants
rejected the conditions proposed by the pope.
The next pope, Paul III (1534-49), as Cardinal
Alessandro Farnese, had always strongly favoured the convening of a
council, and had, during the
conclave, urged
the calling of one. When, after his election, he first met the
Cardinals, 17 October, 1534, he spoke of the necessity of a general
council, and repeated this opinion at the first consistory (13
November). He summoned distinguished prelates to Rome to discuss the
matter with them. Representatives of Charles V and Ferdinand I also
laboured to hasten the council. The majority of the cardinals, however,
opposed the immediate calling of a council, and it was resolved to
notify the princes of the papal decision to hold a church assembly.
Nuncios were sent for this purpose to France, Spain, and the German
king, Ferdinand. Vergerio, nuncio to Ferdinand, was also to apprise the
German electors and the most distinguished of the remaining ruling
princes personally of the impending proclamation of the council. He
executed his commission with zeal, although he frequently met with
reserve and distrust. The selection of the place of meeting was a source
of much difficulty, as Rome insisted that the council should meet in an
Italian city. The
Protestant rulers, meeting at Smalkald in December, 1535, rejected
the proposed council. In this they were supported by Kings
Henry VIII and
Francis I. At the same time the latter sent assurances to Rome that he
considered the council as very serviceable for the extermination of
heresy, carrying on, as regards the holding of a council, the double
intrigue he always pursued in reference to German
Protestantism.
The visit of Charles V to Rome in 1536 led to a complete agreement
between him and the pope concerning the council. On 2 June, Paul III
published the Bull calling all patriarchs, archbishops, bishops, and
abbots to assemble at Mantua on 23 May, 1537, for a general council.
Cardinal legates were sent with an invitation to the council to the
emperor, the King of the Romans, the King of France, while a number of
other nuncios carried the invitation to the other
Christian
countries. The Netherlander Peter van der Vorst was sent to Germany to
persuade the German ruling princes to take part. The
Protestant
rulers received the ambassador most ungraciously; at Smalkald they
refused the invitation curtly, although in 1530 they had demanded a
council. Francis I took advantage of the war that had broken out between
himself and Charles in 1536 to declare the journey of the French bishops
to the council impossible.
Meanwhile preparations were carried on with zeal at
Rome. The commission of reform, appointed in July, 1536, drew up a
report as the basis for the correction of the abuses in ecclesiastical
life; the pope began preparations for the journey to Mantua. The Duke of
Mantua now raised objections against the holding of the assembly in his
city and made conditions which it was not possible to accept at Rome.
The opening of the council, therefore, was put off to 1 November; later
it was decided to open it at Vicenza on 1 May, 1538. The course of
affairs, however, was continually obstructed by Francis I. Nevertheless
the legates who were to preside at the council went to Vicenza. Only six
bishops were present. The French king and the pope met at Nice, and it
was decided to prorogue until
Easter, 1539.
Soon after this the emperor also desired to postpone the council, as he
hoped to restore religious unity in Germany by conferences with the
Protestants.
After further unsuccessful negotiations both with Charles V and Francis
I the council was indefinitely prorogued at the consistory of 21 May,
1539, to reassemble at the pope's discretion. When Paul III and Charles
V met at Lucca in September, 1541, the former again raised the question
of the council. The emperor now consented that it should meet at Vicenza,
but Venice would not agree, whereupon the emperor proposed Trent, and
later Cardinal Contarini suggested Mantua, but nothing was decided. The
emperor and Francis I were invited later to send the cardinals of their
countries to Rome, so that the question of the council could be
discussed by the college of cardinals. Morone worked in Germany as
legate for the council, and the pope agreed to hold it at Trent. After
further consultations at Rome, Paul III convoked on 22 May, 1542, an
ecumenical council to meet at Trent on 1 Nov. of the same year. The
Protestants
made violent attacks on the council, and Francis I opposed it
energetically, not even permitting the Bull of convocation to be
published in his kingdom.
The German Catholic princes and King Sigismund of
Poland consented to the convocation. Charles V, enraged at the neutral
position of the pope in the war that was threatening between himself and
Francis I, as well as with the wording of the Bull, wrote a reproachful
letter to Paul III. Nevertheless, preparations were made for the council
at Trent, by special papal commissioners, and three cardinals were
appointed later as conciliary legates. The conduct, however, of Francis
I and of the emperor again prevented the opening of the council. A few
Italian and German bishops appeared at Trent. The pope went to Bologna
in March 1543, and to a conference with Charles V at Busseto in June,
yet matters were not advanced. The strained relations which appeared
anew between pope and emperor, and the war between Charles V and Francis
I, led to another prorogation (6 July, 1543). After the Peace of Crespy
(17 Sept., 1544) a reconciliation was effected between Paul III and
Charles V. Francis I had abandoned his opposition and declared himself
in favour of Trent as the place of meeting, as did the emperor. On 19
Nov., 1544, the Bull "Laetare Hierusalem" was issued, by which the
council was again convoked to meet at Trent on 15 March, 1545. Cardinals
Giovanni del Monte, Marcello Cervini, and Reginald Pole were appointed
in February, 1545, as the papal legates to preside at the council. As in
March only a few bishops had come to Trent, the date of opening had to
be deferred again. The emperor, however, desired a speedy opening,
consequently 13 December, 1545, was appointed as the date of the first
formal session. This was held in the choir of the cathedral of Trent
after the first president of the council, Cardinal del Monte, had
celebrated the Mass of the Holy Ghost. When the Bull of convocation and
the Bull appointing the conciliary legates were read, Cardinal del Monte
declared the ecumenical council opened, and appointed 7 January as the
date of the second session. Besides the three presiding legates there
were present: Cardinal Madruzza, Bishop of Trent, four archbishops,
twenty-one bishops, five generals of orders. The council was attended,
in addition, by the legates of the King of Germany, Ferdinand, and by
forty-two theologians, and nine canonists, who had been summoned as
consultors.
II. ORDER OF BUSINESS
In the work of accomplishing its great task the
council had to contend with many difficulties. The first weeks were
occupied mainly with settling the order of business of the assembly.
After long discussion it was agreed that the matters to be taken into
consideration by the members of the council were to be proposed by the
cardinal legates; after they had been drawn up by a commission of
consultors (congregatio theologorum minorum) they were to be
discussed thoroughly in preparatory sessions of special congregations of
prelates for dogmatic questions, and similar congregations for legal
questions (congregatio proelatorum theologorum and congregatio
proelatorum canonistarum). Originally the fathers of the council
were divided into three congregations for discussion of subjects, but
this was soon done away with as too cumbersome. After all the
preliminary discussions the matter thus made ready was debated in detail
in the general congregation (congregatio generalis) and the final
form of the decrees was settled on. These general congregations were
composed of all bishops, generals of orders, and abbots who were
entitled to a vote, the proxies of absent members entitled to a vote,
and the representatives (oratores) of the secular rulers. The
decrees resulting from such exhaustive debates were then brought forward
in the formal sessions and votes were taken upon them. On 18 December
the legates laid seventeen articles before the general congregations as
regards the order of procedure in the subjects to be discussed. This led
to a number of difficulties. The main one was whether dogmatic questions
or the reform of church life should be discussed first. It was finally
decided that both subjects should be debated simultaneously. Thus after
the promulgation in the sessions of the decrees concerning the dogmas of
the Church followed a similar promulgation of those on discipline and
Church reform. The question was also raised whether the generals of
orders and abbots were members of the council entitled to a vote.
Opinions varied greatly on this point. Still, after long discussion the
decision was reached that one vote for the entire order belonged to each
general of an order, and that the three Benedictine abbots sent by the
pope to represent the entire order were entitled to only one vote.
Violent differences of opinion appeared during the
preparatory discussion of the decree to be laid before the second
session determining the title to be given the council; the question was
whether there should be added to the title "Holy Council of Trent" (Sacrosancta
tridentina synodus) the words "representing the Church universal" (universalem
ecclesiam reproesentans). According to the Bishop of Fiesole,
Braccio Martello, a number of the members of the council desired the
latter form. However, such a title, although justified in itself,
appeared dangerous to the legates and other members of the council on
account of its bearing on the Councils of
Constance and
Basle, as it might be taken to express the superiority of the ecumenical
council over the pope. Therefore instead of this formula the additional
phrase "oecumenica et generalis" was proposed and accepted by
nearly all the bishops. Only three bishops who raised the question
unsuccessfully several times later persisted in wanting the formula "universalem
ecclesiam reproesentans". A further point was in reference to the
proxies of absent bishops, namely, whether these were entitled to a vote
or not. Originally the proxies were not allowed a vote; Paul III granted
to those German bishops who could not leave their dioceses on account of
religious troubles, and to them alone, representation by proxies. In
1562, when the council met again,
Pius IV
withdrew this permission. Other regulations were also passed, in regard
to the right of the members to draw the revenues of their dioceses
during the session of the council, and concerning the mode of life of
the members. At a later date, during the third period of the council,
various modifications were made in these decisions. Thus the theologians
of the council, who had grown in the meantime into a large body, were
divided into six classes, each of which received a number of drafts of
decrees for discussion. Special deputations also were often appointed
for special questions. The entire regulation of the debates was a very
prudent one, and offered every guarantee for an absolutely objective and
exhaustive discussion in all their bearings of the questions brought up
for debate. A regular courier service was maintained between Rome and
Trent, so that the pope was kept fully informed in regard to the debates
of the council.
III. THE WORK AND SESSIONS
A. First Period at Trent
Among the fathers of the council and the theologians
who had been summoned to Trent were a number of important men. The
legates who presided at the council were equal to their difficult task;
Paceco of Jaen, Campeggio of Feltre, and the Bishop of Fiesole already
mentioned were especially conspicuous among the bishops who were present
at the early sessions. Girolamo Seripando, General of the Augustinian
Hermits, was the most prominent of the heads of the orders; of the
theologians, the two learned Dominicans, Ambrogio Catarino and Domenico
Soto, should be mentioned. After the formal opening session (13
December, 1545), the various questions pertaining to the order of
business were debated; neither in the second session (7 January, 1546)
nor in the third (4 February, 1546) were any matters touching faith or
discipline brought forward. It was only after the third session, when
the preliminary questions and the order of business had been essentially
settled, that the real work of the council began. The emperor's
representative, Francisco de Toledo, did not reach Trent until 15 March,
and a further personal representative, Mendoza, arrived on 25 May. The
first subject of discussion which was laid before the general
congregation by the legates on 8 February was the Scriptures as the
source of Divine revelation. After exhaustive preliminary discussions in
the various congregations, two decrees were ready for debate at the
fourth session (8 April, 1546), and were adopted by the fathers. In
treating the canon of Scripture they declare at the same time that in
matters of faith and morals the tradition of the Church is, together
with the Bible, the standard of supernatural revelation; then taking up
the text and the use of the sacred Books they declare the Vulgate to be
the authentic text for sermons and disputations, although this did not
exclude textual emendations. It was also determined that the Bible
should be interpreted according to the unanimous testimony of the
Fathers and never misused for superstitious purposes. Nothing was
decided in regard to the translation of the Bible in the vernaculars.
In the meantime earnest discussions concerning the
question of church reform had been carried on between the pope and the
legates, and a number of items had been suggested by the latter. These
had special reference to the Roman Curia and its administration, to the
bishops, the ecclesiastical benefices and tithes, the orders, and the
training of the clergy. Charles V wished the discussion of the dogmatic
questions to be postponed, but the council and the pope could not agree
to that, and the council debated dogmas simultaneously with decrees
concerning discipline. On 24 May the general congregation took up the
discussion of original sin, its nature, consequences, and cancellation
by baptism. At the same time the question of the Immaculate Conception
of the Virgin was brought forward, but the majority of the members
finally decided not to give any definite dogmatic decision on this
point. The reforms debated concerned the establishment of theological
professorships, preaching, and episcopal obligation of residence. In
reference to the latter the Spanish bishop, Paceco, raised the point
whether this obligation was of Divine origin, or whether it was merely
an ecclesiastical ordinance of human origin, a question which led later
to long and violent discussions. In the fifth session (17 June, 1546)
the decree on the dogma of original sin was promulgated with five canons
(anathemas)
against the corresponding erroneous doctrines; and the first decree on
reform (de reformatione) was also promulgated. This treats (in
two chapters) of professorships of the Scriptures, and of secular
learning (artes liberales), of those who preach the Divine word,
and of the collectors of alms.
For the following session, which was originally set
for 29 July, the matters proposed for general debate were the dogma of
justification as the dogmatic question and the obligation of residence
as regards bishops as the disciplinary decree; the treatment of these
questions was proposed to the general congregation by the legates on 21
June. The dogma of justification brought up for debate one of the
fundamental questions which had to be discussed with reference to the
heretics of the sixteenth century, and which in itself presented great
difficulties. The imperial party sought to block the discussion of the
entire matter, some of the fathers were anxious on account of the
approaching war of Charles V against the
Protestant
princes, and there was fresh dissension between the emperor and the
pope. However, the debates on the question were prosecuted with the
greatest zeal; animated, at times even stormy, discussions took place;
the debate of the next general session had to be postponed. No less than
sixty-one general congregations and forty-four other congregations were
held for the debate of the important subjects of justification and the
obligation of residence, before the matters were ready for the final
decision. At the sixth regular session on 13 January, 1547, was
promulgated the masterly decree on justification (de justificatione),
which consisted of a prooemium or preface and sixteen chapters with
thirty-three canons in condemnation of the opposing heresies. The decree
on reform of this session was one in five chapters respecting the
obligation of residence of bishops and of the occupants of
ecclesiastical benefices or offices. These decrees make the sixth
session one of the most important and decisive of the entire council.
The legates proposed to the general congregation as
the subject-matter for the following session, the doctrine of the Church
as to the sacraments, and for the disciplinary question a series of
ordinances respecting both the appointment and official activities of
bishops, and on ecclesiastical benefices. When the questions had been
debated, in the seventh session (3 March, 1547), a dogmatic decree with
suitable canons was promulgated on the sacraments in general (thirteen
canons), on baptism (fourteen canons), and on confirmation (three
canons); a decree on reform (in fifteen chapters) was also enacted in
regard to bishops and ecclesiastical benefices, in particular as to
pluralities, visitations, and exemptions, concerning the founding of
infirmaries, and as to the legal affairs of the clergy. Before this
session was held the question of the prorogation of the council or its
transfer to another city had been discussed. The relations between pope
and emperor had grown even more strained; the Smalkaldic War had begun
in Germany; and now an infectious disease broke out in Trent, carrying
off the general of the Franciscans and others. The cardinal legates,
therefore, in the eighth session (11 March, 1547) proposed the transfer
of the council to another city, supporting themselves in this action by
a Brief which had been given them by the pope some time before. The
majority of the fathers voted to transfer the council to Bologna, and on
the following day (12 March) the legates went there. By the ninth
session the number of participants had risen to four cardinals, nine
archbishops, forty-nine bishops, two proxies, two abbots, three generals
of orders, and fifty theologians.
B. Period at Bologna
The majority of the fathers of the council went with
the cardinal legates from Trent to Bologna; but fourteen bishops who
belonged to the party of Charles V remained at Trent and would not
recognize the transfer. The sudden change of place without any special
consultation beforehand with the pope did not please Paul III, who
probably foresaw that this would lead to further severe difficulties
between himself and the emperor. As a matter of fact Charles V was very
indignant at the change, and through his ambassador Vaga protested
against it, vigorously urging a return to Trent. The emperor's defeat of
the Smalkaldic League increased his power. Influential cardinals sought
to mediate between the emperor and the pope, but the negotiations
failed. The emperor protested formally against the transfer to Bologna,
and, refusing to permit the Spanish bishops who had remained at Trent to
leave that city, began negotiations again with the German
Protestants on
his own responsibility. Consequently at the ninth session of the council
held at Bologna on 21 April, 1547, the only decree issued was one
proroguing the session. The same action was all that was taken in the
tenth session on 2 June, 1547, although there had been exhaustive
debates on various subjects in congregations. The tension between the
emperor and the pope had increased despite the efforts of Cardinals
Sfondrato and Madruzzo. All negotiations were fruitless. The bishops who
had remained at Trent had held no sessions, but when the pope called to
Rome four of the bishops at Bologna and four of those at Trent, the
latter said in excuse that they could not obey the call. Paul III had
now to expect extreme opposition from the emperor. Therefore, on 13
September, he proclaimed the suspension of the council and commanded the
cardinal legate del Monte to dismiss the members of the council
assembled at Bologna; this was done on 17 September. The bishops were
called to Rome, where they were to prepare decrees for disciplinary
reforms. This closed the first period of the council. On 10 Nov., 1549,
the pope died.
C. Second Period at Trent
The successor of Paul III was Julius III (1550-55),
Giovanni del Monte, first cardinal legate of the council. He at once
began negotiations with the emperor to reopen the council. On 14 Nov.,
1550, he issued the Bull "Quum ad tollenda," in which the reassembling
at Trent was arranged. As presidents he appointed Cardinal Marcellus
Crescentius, Archbishop Sebastian Pighinus of Siponto, and Bishop
Aloysius Lipomanni of Verona. The cardinal legate reached Trent on 29
April, 1551, where, besides the bishop of the city, fourteen bishops
from the countries ruled by the emperor were in attendance; several
bishops came from Rome, where they had been staying, and on 1 May, 1551,
the eleventh session was held. In this the resumption of the council was
decreed, and 1 September was appointed as the date of the next session.
The Sacrament of the Eucharist and drafts of further disciplinary
decrees were discussed in the congregations of the theologians and also
in several general congregations. Among the theologians were Lainez and
Salmeron, who had been sent by the pope, and Johannes Arza, who
represented the emperor. Ambassadors of the emperor, King Ferdinand, and
Henry II of France were present. The King of France, however, was
unwilling to allow any French bishop to go to the council. In the
twelfth session (1 Sept., 1551) the only decision was the prorogation
until 11 October. This was due to the expectation of the arrival of
other German bishops, besides the Archbishops of Mainz and Trier who
were already in attendance. The thirteenth session was held on 11 Oct.,
1551; it promulgated a comprehensive decree on the Sacrament of the
Eucharist (in eight chapters and eleven canons) and also a decree on
reform (in eight chapters) in regard to the supervision to be exercised
by bishops, and on episcopal jurisdiction. Another decree deferred until
the next session the discussion of four articles concerning the
Eucharist, namely, Communion under the two species of bread and wine and
the Communion of children; a safe-conduct was also issued for
Protestants who
desired to come to the council. An ambassador of Joachim II of
Brandenburg had already reached Trent.
The presidents laid before the general congregation
of 15 October drafts of definitions of the Sacraments of Penance and
Extreme Unction for discussion. These subjects occupied the
congregations of theologians, among whom Gropper, Nausea, Tapper, and
Hessels were especially prominent, and also the general congregations
during the months of October and November. At the fourteenth session,
held on 25 November, the dogmatic decree promulgated contained nine
chapters on the dogma of the Church respecting the Sacrament of Penance
and three chapters on extreme unction. To the chapters on penance were
added fifteen canons condemning heretical teachings on this point, and
four canons condemning heresies to the chapters on unction. The decree
on reform treated the discipline of the clergy and various matters
respecting ecclesiastical benefices. In the meantime, ambassadors from
several Protestant
princes and cities reached Trent. They made various demands, as: that
the earlier decisions which were contrary to the Augsburg Confession
should be recalled; that debates on questions in dispute between
Catholics and
Protestants should be deferred; that the subordination of the pope
to an ecumenical council should be defined; and other propositions which
the council could not accept. Since the close of the last session both
the theologians and the general congregations had been occupied in
numerous assemblies with the dogma of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and
of the ordination of priests, as well as with plans for new reformatory
decrees. At the fifteenth session (25 January, 1552), in order to make
some advances to the ambassadors of the
Protestants,
the decisions in regard to the subjects under consideration were
postponed and a new safe-conduct, such as they had desired, was drawn up
for them. Besides the three papal legates and Cardinal Madruzzo, there
were present at Trent ten archbishops and fifty-four bishops, most of
them from the countries ruled by the emperor. On account of the
treacherous attack made by Maurice of Saxony on Charles V, the city of
Trent and the members of the council were placed in danger;
consequently, at the sixteenth session (23 April, 1552) a decree
suspending the council for two years was promulgated. However, a
considerably longer period of time elapsed before it could resume its
sessions.
D. Third Period at Trent
Julius III did not live to call the council together
again. He was followed by Marcellus II (1555), a former cardinal legate
at Trent, Marcello Cervino; Marcellus died twenty-two days after his
election. His successor, the austere Paul IV (1555-9), energetically
carried out internal reforms both in Rome and in the other parts of the
Church; but he did not seriously consider reconvening the council.
Pius IV
(1559-65) announced to the cardinals shortly after his election his
intention of reopening the council. Indeed, he had found the right man,
his nephew, the Cardinal Archbishop of Milan,
Charles Borromeo,
to complete the important work and to bring its decisions into customary
usage in the Church. Great difficulties were raised once more on various
sides. The Emperor Ferdinand desired the council, but wished it to be
held in some German city, and not at Trent; moreover he desired it to
meet not as a continuation of the earlier assembly but as a new council.
The King of France also desired the assembling of a new council, but he
did not wish it at Trent. The
Protestants of
Germany worked in every way against the assembling of the Council. After
long negotiations Ferdinand, the Kings of Spain and Portugal, Catholic
Switzerland, and Venice left the matter to the pope. On 29 Nov., 1560,
the Bull "Ad ecclesiae regimen," by which the council was ordered to
meet again at Trent at
Easter, 1561,
was published. Notwithstanding all the efforts of the papal nuncios,
Delfino and Commendone, the German
Protestants
persisted in their opposition. Cardinal Ercole Gonzaga was appointed
president of the council; he was to be assisted by the cardinal legates
Stanislaus Hosius, Jacobus Puteus (du Puy), Hieronymus Seripando, Luigi
Simonetta, and Marcus Siticus of Altemps. As the bishops made their
appearance very slowly, the opening of the council was delayed. Finally
on 18 Jan., 1562, the seventeenth session was held; it proclaimed the
revocation of the suspension of the council and appointed the date for
the next session. There were present, besides the four cardinal legates,
one cardinal, three patriarchs, eleven archbishops, forty bishops, four
abbots, and four generals of orders; in addition thirty-four theologians
were in attendance. The ambassadors of the princes were a source of much
trouble to the presidents of the council and made demands which were in
part impossible. The
Protestants
continued to calumniate the assembly. Emperor Ferdinand wished to have
the discussion of dogmatic questions deferred.
At the eighteenth session (25 Feb., 1562) the only
matters decided were the publication of a decree concerning the drawing
up of a list of forbidden books and an agreement as to a safe-conduct
for Protestants.
At the next two sessions, the nineteenth on 14 May, and the twentieth on
4 June, 1562, only decrees proroguing the council were issued. The
number of members had, it is true, increased, and various ambassadors of
Catholic rulers had arrived at Trent, but some princes continued to
raise obstacles both as to the character of the council and the place of
meeting. Emperor Ferdinand sent an exhaustive plan of church reform
which contained many articles impossible to accept. The legates,
however, continued the work of the assembly, and presented the draft of
the decree on Holy Communion, which treated especially the question of
Communion under both species, as well as drafts of several disciplinary
decrees. These questions were subjected to the usual discussions. At the
twenty-first session (16 July, 1562) the decree on Communion under both
species and on the Communion of children was promulgated in four
chapters and four canons. A decree upon reformation in nine chapters was
also promulgated; it treated ordination to the priesthood, the revenues
of canons, the founding of new parishes, and the collectors of alms.
Articles on the Sacrifice of the Mass were now laid before the
congregations for discussion; in the following months there were long
and animated debates over the dogma. At the twenty-second session, which
was not held until 17 Sept., 1562, four decrees were promulgated: the
first contained the dogma of the Church on the Sacrifice of the Mass (in
nine chapters and nine canons); the second directed the suppression of
abuses in the offering of the Holy Sacrifice; a third (in eleven
chapters) treated reform, especially in regard to the morals of the
clergy, the requirements necessary before ecclesiastical offices could
be assumed, wills, the administration of religious foundations; the
fourth treated the granting of the cup to the laity at Communion, which
was left to the discretion of the pope.
The council had hardly ever been in as difficult a
position as that in which it now found itself. The secular rulers made
contradictory and, in part, impossible demands. At the same time warm
debates were held by the fathers on the questions of the duty of
residence and the relations of the bishops to the pope. The French
bishops who arrived on 13 November made several dubious propositions.
Cardinals Gonzaga and Seripando, who were of the number of cardinal
legates, died. The two new legates and presidents, Morone and Navagero,
gradually mastered the difficulties. The various points of the dogma
concerning the ordination of priests were discussed both in the
congregations of the eighty-four theologians, among whom Salmeron, Soto,
and Lainez were the most prominent, and in the general congregations.
Finally, on 15 July, 1563, the twenty-third session was held. It
promulgated the decree on the Sacrament of Orders and on the
ecclesiastical hierarchy (in four chapters and eight canons), and a
decree on reform (in eighteen chapters). This disciplinary decree
treated the obligation of residence, the conferring of the different
grades of ordination, and the education of young clerics (seminarists).
The decrees which were proclaimed to the Church at this session were the
result of long and arduous debates, in which 235 members entitled to a
vote took part. Disputes now arose once more as to whether the council
should be speedily terminated or should be carried on longer. In the
meantime the congregations debated the draft of the decree on the
Sacrament of Matrimony, and at the twenty-fourth session (11 Nov., 1563)
there were promulgated a dogmatic decree (with twelve canons) on
marriage as a sacrament and a reformatory decree (in ten chapters),
which treated the various conditions requisite for contracting of a
valid marriage. A general decree on reform (in twenty-one chapters) was
also published which treated the various questions connected with the
administration of ecclesiastical offices.
The desire for the closing of the council grew
stronger among all connected with it, and it was decided to close it as
speedily as possible. A number of questions had been discussed
preliminarily and were now ready for final definition. Consequently in
the twenty-fifth and final session, which occupied two days (3-4
December, 1563), the following decrees were approved and promulgated: on
3 December a dogmatic decree on the veneration and invocation of the
saints, and on the
relics and images of the same; a decree on reform (in twenty-two
chapters) concerning monks and nuns; a decree on reform, treating of the
mode of life of cardinals and bishops, certificates of fitness for
ecclesiastics, legacies for Masses, the administration of ecclesiastical
benefices, the suppression of concubinage among the clergy, and the life
of the clergy in general. On 4 December the following were promulgated:
a dogmatic decree on
indulgences; a
decree on fasts and feast days; a further decree on the preparation by
the pope of editions of the Missal, the Breviary, and a catechism, and
of a list of forbidden books. It was also declared that no secular power
had been placed at a disadvantage by the rank accorded to its
ambassadors, and the secular rulers were called upon to accept the
decisions of the council and to execute them. Finally, the decrees
passed by the council during the pontificates of Paul III and Julius III
were read and proclaimed to be binding. After the fathers had agreed to
lay the decisions before the pope for confirmation, the president,
Cardinal Morone, declared the council to be closed. The decrees were
subscribed by two hundred and fifteen fathers of the council, consisting
of four cardinal legates, two cardinals, three patriarchs, twenty-five
archbishops, one hundred and sixty-seven bishops, seven abbots, seven
generals of orders, and also by nineteen proxies for thirty-three absent
prelates. The decrees were confirmed on 26 Jan., 1564, by
Pius IV in the
Bull "Benedictus Deus," and were accepted by Catholic countries, by some
with reservations.
The Ecumenical Council of Trent has proved to be of
the greatest importance for the development of the inner life of the
Church. No council has ever had to accomplish its task under more
serious difficulties, none has had so many questions of the greatest
importance to decide. The assembly proved to the world that
notwithstanding repeated apostasy in church life there still existed in
it an abundance of religious force and of loyal championship of the
unchanging principles of
Christianity.
Although unfortunately the council, through no fault of the fathers
assembled, was not able to heal the religious differences of western
Europe, yet the
infallible Divine truth was clearly proclaimed in opposition to the
false doctrines of the day, and in this way a firm foundation was laid
for the overthrow of heresy and the carrying out of genuine internal
reform in the Church.
